When the preliminaries are over, Socrates raises a fundamental question: can virtue be taught? Socrates has his doubts. In areas of technical expertise such as architecture, the government sends for experts. But they do not seek experts for advice on how to govern—any citizen is welcome to put in his two-cents’ worth. Look at how children of virtuous persons are brought up, he continues. The sons of Pericles, for instance—who happen to be present at the gathering of sophists—are put out to graze like cattle, without any sure way of their becoming virtuous adults. So it appears that virtue cannot be taught in a reliable way.[5]
Protagoras thereupon asserts that virtue is teachable, and launches on an elegant speech to make his point. He tells an origin myth: once upon a time the gods appointed Prometheus and Epimetheus to design the creatures of the earth. Epimetheus (whose name means “Afterthought”) distributed all the gifts of strength, speed, and so on before he got to the human race, leaving them naked and unprotected. To make up for the lack, Prometheus (“Forethought”) stole technology and fire from the gods to give them the possibility of protecting themselves from predators: they could create their own clothing, shoes, armor, and arms. Yet they lacked social skills to work together, so that they could not cooperate. At this point Zeus ordered Hermes to give humans aidōs and dikē, respect for others and a sense of justice. Zeus commanded these gifts to be given to all humans, so that they could create a society; anyone who lacked them should be put to death as a plague to the race.[6]
But if that story were true, it would seem that everyone should be perfectly fair and just, as clearly they are not. Here Protagoras points to an analogy with learning language. Humans learn language from their community, so that they are able to communicate. But only a few progress to be masters of speech. Accordingly, as experts can help speakers of the common language to become expressive writers or powerful orators, so experts can help people with basic social skills to become outstandingly virtuous. On this analogy, humans have basic social skills innately, but they need help to become skilled in complex interactions.[7]
Socrates heaps praise on Protagoras for his skillful defense of the art of teaching. But he still has one worry: does virtue have “parts” or species such as justice, temperance, and piety, or are the terms we use for the virtues just names of a single entity? Protagoras quickly opts for the former thesis, while Socrates demurs. In an extended discussion, Protagoras points out that in particular, courage seems to be very different from the other virtues, and to be found often in different sorts of people. So what is courage, and how is it different?
[5].Plato Protagoras 319b-320b.
[6].Plato Protagoras 320d-322d.
[7].Plato Protagoras 322d-328c.